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Asiatic palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus)
Abstract
The grey wolf (Canis lupus) is an important apex predator whose persistence in human-dominated landscapes is increasingly influenced by livestock depredation and negative human perceptions. This study investigated grey wolf diet composition, reported livestock depredation patterns, and community perceptions in Orakzai District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Field surveys were conducted from August 2024 to July 2025 across 25 purposively selected sites. Grey wolf scats were collected and analysed using morphological characteristics and microscopic examination of prey remains. A total of 29 wolf scats yielded 30 identified prey occurrences representing 15 prey species. Wild prey accounted for 17 occurrences (56.67%), whereas domestic prey accounted for 13 (43.33%). Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) was the most frequently detected prey species, followed by Asiatic palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), while cattle (Bos taurus) represented the most frequently detected domestic prey. Dietary diversity was H′ = 2.52, with prey species richness of 15 and evenness of 0.93. These results describe prey occurrences detected in scats and cannot be interpreted as evidence of prey preference or selection because prey availability was not independently quantified. To assess human–wolf conflict, structured household interviews were conducted with 123 respondents across 25 villages. Households were targeted based on livestock husbandry and/or previous experience of wolf-attributed depredation; therefore, all respondents reported at least one livestock attack attributed to grey wolves, and these data do not represent a standardized depredation rate. Most reported attacks occurred at night (61.0%), followed by evening (35.0%), with October showing the highest frequency of reported attacks (20.5%). Overall, 80.5% of respondents expressed negative perceptions of grey wolves. Firth penalized logistic regression showed that the reported number of grey wolves killed during the previous 5–10 years was positively associated with the odds of negative rather than neutral perception (OR = 2.495, 95% CI = 1.453–4.740, P < 0.001), whereas age, occupation, livestock holdings, wolf sightings, attack timing, and livestock injury were not statistically significant. The findings highlight substantial interaction between grey wolves and livestock-dependent communities and emphasize the need for evidence-based conflict mitigation, improved livestock protection, and conservation strategies informed by prey availability and local ecological conditions.