Human Altered Landscape / Road Density & Wolves

Abstract

The recent expansion of grey wolves (Canis lupus) in Italy has led them into new ecological contexts, including areas characterized by poor prey communities and landscape anthropization. While dietary studies are essential for predicting wolf’s ecological functions and impacts, it remains unclear whether research on wolf diet has kept pace with this expansion. We mapped the current distribution of wolves in Italy and then clusterized areas based on food resources available to wolves: domestic or wild ungulates, the coypu (Myocastor coypus), and resources associated with landscape anthropization. Finally, we checked the coverage of each cluster by dietary studies (n = 33). Areas currently inhabited by wolves in Italy include nine different food resource assemblages. However, most studies on wolf diet have focused on remote areas of the Alps, where northern Chamois and red deer are abundant, and in areas with a rich assemblage of wild ungulates. In contrast, wolf diet remains unexplored in Mediterranean ecosystems with poorer ungulate assemblages and in highly anthropized landscapes, despite these environments together accounting for most areas of ongoing wolf expansion. These gaps may preventing us from knowing if wolves in highly anthropized landscapes are exposed to toxic compounds and if predation on domestic pets can trigger conflicts. Similarly, the lack of research in areas where wolves rely almost exclusively on wild Boar hinders our ability to predict the potential impact of African Swine Fever on wolf ecology and behaviour, as well as its broader influence on human-wolf conflicts.

Abstract

The use of space by large carnivores is driven by the need to access essential resources and avoid human disturbances, resulting in spatiotemporal avoidance behaviours due to anthropogenic pressure. The Carpathian mountain range is one of Europe’s largest and less human-dominated stronghold for wolves, yet it remains significantly understudied. In this study, we systematically surveyed signs of wolf presence in the Slovak Western Carpathians to assess habitat selection across 3 periods with biological significance (mating, pup-rearing and non-breeding). We employed a second-order Resource Selection Functions and used-available design, i.e., relative selection, to provide the first available information on wolf habitat selection in the Carpathians and determine the influence of several environmental and anthropogenic variables, including road density and wolf harvest. Our results show significant seasonal variations in wolf habitat selection while consistently avoiding humans, except for areas with dense forest canopy. The avoidance of humans was particularly pronounced when wolves were subjected to human hunting pressure, showing decreased selection strength and a marked tendency to choose areas with minimal human activity to reduce likelihood of detection. Finally, we provided spatially explicit predictive models of wolf seasonal resource selection to support the identification of areas of significance for adequate wolf management. Our study provides valuable insights for efficient and cost-effective management decisions to limit the effect of anthropogenic pressures on wolves, in order to reduce disturbance, mortality risk, and enhance breeding success.

Abstract
Coexisting with large carnivores in human-dominated European landscapes is a highly relevant and current challenge. Over the last two centuries, the wolf (Canis lupus) population in Europe has experienced a significant decline, primarily due to direct human persecution. However, recent conservation policies, combined with the species’ remarkable ecological flexibility, have enabled a rapid recovery. This process, which now also extends to densely populated areas, is exemplified by the ongoing expansion across the Po Plain, one of Europe’s most heavily human-dominated landscapes. Our study aims to provide the first assessment of habitat suitability for wolf presence in the Po Plain. Using a ten-year dataset of wolf occurrences (2015–2024), we evaluated the influence of several environmental and human-related factors by applying habitat suitability models with the Maximum Entropy algorithm (MaxEnt). The goal was to quantify potentially suitable habitats within the plain and to identify the factors that could either facilitate or constrain wolf presence. The results showed that approximately half of the Po Plain is suitable for wolf presence. Among anthropogenic variables, “urban areas” was the only factor that significantly and negatively affected habitat suitability, while other variables had negligible impacts. This underscores the species’ remarkable ecological and behavioural adaptability. By investigating wolf distribution in one of Europe’s most anthropised regions, this study aims to shed light on the species’ ability to thrive in human-altered landscapes, contributing to ongoing conservation efforts and informing future strategies for coexistence in highly populated lowland ecosystems.

Optimizing energy acquisition and expenditure is a fundamental trade-off for consumers, strikingly reflected in how mobile organisms use space. Several studies have established that.

home range size decreases as resource density increases, but the balance of costs and benefits associated with exploiting a given resource density is unclear. We evaluate how the ability of consumers to exploit their resources through movement (termed “resource exploitation”) interacts with resource density to influence home range size. We then contrast two hypotheses to evaluate how resource exploitation influences home range size across a vast gradient of productivity and density of human-created linear features (roads and seismic lines) that are known to facilitate animal movements. Under the Diffusion Facilitation Hypothesis, linear features are predicted to lead to more diffuse space use and larger home ranges. Under the Exploitation Efficiency Hypothesis, linear features are predicted to increase foraging efficiency, resulting in less space being required to meet energetic demands and therefore smaller home ranges. Using GPS telemetry data from 142 wolves (Canis lupus) distributed over more than 500,000 km2, we found that wolf home range size was influenced by the interaction between resource density and exploitation efficiency. Home range size decreased as linear feature density increased, supporting the Exploitation Efficiency Hypothesis. However, the effect of linear features on home range size diminished in more productive areas, suggesting that exploitation efficiency is of greater importance when resource density is low. These results suggest that smaller home ranges will occur where both linear feature density and primary productivity are higher, thereby increasing regional wolf density.